The Intersection of Maltreatment, Dating Violence, and Gender Identity in First-Time Juvenile Offenders

Traumatology | 2024, Vol. 30, No. 4, 647-660.

Pathways From Early Childhood Maltreatment to Adolescent Dating Violence: The Role of Traumatic Stress and Substance Use Among Juvenile Justice-Involved Youth

David Hoskins - Behavioral Health Division, UCSF Benioff, Children’s Hospital, Oakland, California, United States

Jocelyn I. Meza - Department of Psychiatry, University of California, Los Angeles

Evan D. Holloway -  Department of Psychiatry and Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California San Francisco; Division of Infant, Child, and Adolescent Psychiatry, Zuckerberg San Francisco General Hospital, San Francisco, California, United States

Larry Brown - Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University; Department of Psychiatry, Rhode Island Hospital, Providence, Rhode Island, United States

Kathleen Kemp - Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University; Department of Psychiatry, Rhode Island Hospital, Providence, Rhode Island, United States

Marina Tolou-Shams - Department of Psychiatry and Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California San Francisco; Division of Infant, Child, and Adolescent Psychiatry, Zuckerberg San Francisco General Hospital, San Francisco, California, United States

Court-involved youth are more likely to report early childhood maltreatment histories, and these maltreatment histories can lead to subsequent risk behaviors such as adolescent dating violence (ADV). We used longitudinal data from the Epidemiological Project Involving Children in the Court on youth (N = 192) at first contact with the juvenile court to examine early childhood maltreatment with subsequent ADV, assessing pathways of alcohol, cannabis use, and traumatic stress. Using structural equation modeling, we found that early childhood maltreatment increased the risk for experiencing future ADV, traumatic stress, and alcohol use among youth in first-time contact with the legal system. Transgender youth were at greater risk of experiencing traumatic events, including ADV. Interventions to address traumatic stress and alcohol use among youth with ADV histories at the front door of system contact could reduce ADV likelihood over time. Such interventions should also consider the specific heightened needs of transgender youth, for whom available options are few.

juvenile justice system, early childhood maltreatment, adolescent dating violence, substance misuse, traumatic stress

“Youth involved in the court system are more likely to report early childhood maltreatment histories compared to youth in the general population… Many youth involved in child protective services become dually involved in the juvenile justice system, as they tend not to receive treatment for early maltreatment” (p. 647).

“…The present study is one of the first on youth in [first-time] contact with the court system to longitudinally assess the link between early childhood maltreatment and ADV [defined as aggression while involved in a romantic relationship] and examine whether traumatic stress and substance use increases the likelihood of ADV overtime… ADV among court-involved youth is one of the more understudied research areas given that researchers have focused primarily on youth who were detained and not residing in the community” (p. 648).

“...For gender differences, given evidence that ADV prevalence often varies by gender identity, with female and nonbinary or transgender youth experiencing higher rates compared to cisgender males, we examined whether female and nonbinary or transgender identity was associated with ADV. We hypothesized that minoritized gender identity (i.e., female, nonbinary, transgender) would be associated with a higher prevalence of ADV” (p. 649- 650).

“We followed a sample of 401 youth–caregiver dyads from June 2014 to April 2016 and evaluated the sample over seven time points during the 24-month follow-up period… All court-involved youth ages 12–18 years who had their first-ever status or delinquent petition from a family court in a northeastern U.S. region were approached about their interest in participating at their initial court appointment and then were contacted within the first 30 days of their first court involvement… All measures were available in English and Spanish, depending on the participant’s language preference… [a measurement model examined] emotional, physical, and sexual abuse; emotional and physical neglect; and witnessing parental domestic violence as measurement… removing the domestic violence variable from the maltreatment factor [reduced] scale reliability. In addition, despite the low factor loading, the relationship between witnessing domestic violence and maltreatment was statistically significant… Thus, witnessing domestic violence was included in the final model” (p. 650- 653). 

“We found that a history of maltreatment was associated with experiencing ADV and traumatic stress symptoms, which then increased the likelihood of future alcohol use. Lastly, transgender youth were at greater risk of experiencing traumatic events, including ADV. …Exposure to traumatic events is ubiquitous among court-involved youth, and we found that 90% of the youth in our study experienced some form of maltreatment in their childhood. [Findings] align with previous research suggesting that court-involved youth who experience ADV and/or traumatic stress are more likely to report future alcohol use” (p. 655).

Future Research Needed:
“Assessment procedures for the juvenile legal system would benefit from a deeper understanding of how maltreatment as a broader construct (i.e., emotional abuse, physical abuse, sexual abuse, neglect, and witnessing domestic violence together) longitudinally impacts subsequent ADV and the potential differing roles of traumatic stress with and without substance use” (p. 648).

“More research is needed to examine sex differences (i.e., male vs. female) and gender minority differences (e.g., transgender and nonbinary vs. male/female)” (p. 649).

“...It is important to understand how experiences of childhood maltreatment in the family and ADV in the peer microsystems interact with individual youth gender identity, health behaviors (e.g., substance use), and mental health (e.g., traumatic stress) to increase risk for future ADV” (p. 655).

For Risk Assessment Researchers:
“...Risk assessment researchers should examine the interaction between responsivity factors (e.g., traumatic event exposure, traumatic stress, gender identity) during the case planning process… Our findings highlight the need for integrated screening of substance use, traumatic experiences, and trauma symptoms at intake to the juvenile legal system and at regular intervals thereafter… intervention strategies would benefit from psychoeducation related to the overlap between experiencing ADV and perpetrating it” (p. 656).

Gender Minority Note for Treatment:
“...Systematic identification of gender minority youth is warranted given their overrepresentation in the juvenile legal system, and providing treatment that is responsive to their needs (gender-affirming care), [is] a truly structural intersectionality approach” (p. 656- 657).

More on Gender Minority Youth:
“Studies have shown methodological disparities related to gender minority youth, including a dearth of longitudinal studies and an overall lack of gender minority inclusion… gender nonconforming and transgender youth have been virtually ignored by the juvenile justice system… Compared to cisgender heterosexual youth, gender/sexual minoritized youth in detention are more likely to have been removed from their home due to maltreatment, to be unhoused, and to be detained for status and sex work-related survival offenses, with further evidence that court-involved gender nonconforming and transgender youth may experience family rejection due to their gender identity. Therefore, gender minority youth with maltreatment histories are overrepresented in the legal system; however, little is known regarding transgender court-involved youth’s risk for experiencing ADV” (p. 649- 650).

“Childhood maltreatment increases risks for experiencing future ADV, traumatic stress, and alcohol use among youth in first-time contact with the legal system. Interventions to address traumatic stress and alcohol use among youth with ADV histories at the front door of system contact could reduce ADV likelihood over time. Such interventions should also consider the specific, heightened needs of transgender youth, for whom there is a dearth of available options” (p. 657).

As always, please join the discussion below if you have thoughts or comments to add!

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